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The International Committee of the Red Cross and its mandate to protect and assist: law and practice

機(jī)譯：紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)及其保護(hù)和協(xié)助的任務(wù)：法律和慣例

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摘要

It is 150 years since the establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), following Henry Dunant’s experiences during the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino. It is 100 years since the commencement of the Great War: if we think about a ‘traditional’ battlefield, what images come to mind? Perhaps one imagines soldiers in uniform, tanks, guns and trenches. Do the emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (IRCRCM) feature in the imagined conflict scenario? Now imagine the conflicts happening today in, for example, Syria, Mali, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Ukraine. In these conflicts, soldiers mingle with civilians in towns, armoured vehicles and open backed trucks transport non- uniformed soldiers between conflict areas and weapons include, amongst others, improvised explosive devices, suicide bombers and sexual violence. Nevertheless the emblems of the IRCRCM continue to emblazon the uniforms of medical personnel and their equipment, vehicles and aid boxes.ududWhat consequences do the changes in the nature of armed conflicts have for the ICRC? The human consequences of conflict and the presence of the ICRC has been a constant for 150 years, but the needs of the population and the types of violence continually change. Indeed, since the creation of the ICRC in 1863, the methods, means and actors in conflicts have changed, but so has the practice of the ICRC. This thesis considers the legality of such developments. The ICRC is, perhaps most significantly, the self-entitled, ‘guardian’ of international humanitarian law (IHL) and a neutral and independent entity.ududThis thesis considers the activities currently undertaken by the ICRC in the name of ‘humanitarianism’. It addresses whether a strict interpretation of the Geneva Conventions I, II, III and IV 1949, Additional Protocols I and II and Statutes of the ICRC would show that it is, as an organisation, usurping its mandate and principles. It also takes into account the ‘ICRC Study on Customary IHL’.ududThe thesis examines the issue of whether the ICRC is an organisation with International Legal Personality (ILP) and, if so, whether it has legitimately extended its role beyond that provided in the Geneva Conventions I, II, III and IV 1949, Additional Protocols I and II and the Statutes of the IRCRCM. More broadly therefore the thesis examines the relationship between the ICRC and international law, including IHL, jus ad bellum and international human rights law (IHRL). One unique contribution made by this thesis is to undertake a substantial analysis of the meaning and implementation of humanity, which is a principle of the IRCRCM.ududThe IRCRCM definition of the principle of humanity is:udThe International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, born of a desire to bring assistance without discrimination to the wounded on the battlefield, endeavours, in its international and national capacity, to prevent and alleviate human suffering wherever it may be found. Its purpose is to protect human life and health and to ensure respect for the human being. It promotes mutual understanding, friendship, cooperation and lasting peace amongst all people. ududChapter five of the thesis shows that emerging concepts in the latter part of the twentieth century, in particular sovereignty as responsibility, human security and the Responsibility to Protect (RtoP), are indicative of a development within the international community which identified the plight of individuals within sovereign States as relevant to the international community at large. In particular, the ‘humanity’ and humanitarian needs of people living within states, in particular during and after conflict, became part of international discourse. Humanitarian assistance is no longer restricted to the provision of aid to soldiers.ududThe idea of inhumanity in internal armed conflicts also gained traction on the international stage. It is evident from recent conflicts such as Libya, Syria and Ukraine that international willingness and ability to respond to such situations varies considerably. This thesis, therefore, considers whether the ICRC is able to reach people on the ground in a way that more politicised actors, such as the UN, are not. It considers whether there is a case to be made for a humanitarian approach to protection during, and after, armed conflict? Is the ICRC capable of reaching individuals and communities in a promising and effective way? Has the ICRC had to adapt its humanitarian assistance and protection roles to adequately respond to the changing nature of armed conflicts? These questions permeate the analysis of the mandate of the ICRC and its current work, which is undertaken throughout this thesis.ududCritically, this thesis dedicates a chapter to analyse what ‘humanity’ means today. In much literature humanity is considered in terms of IHL, which, it is argued, provides a limited definition of such. Likewise, much literature on the ICRC centre’s on its links to IHL. The ICRC often forms a subsection of a chapter on IHL or is viewed through the lens of IHL. This thesis goes further than traditional accounts of the ICRC, as it presents the ICRC as key actor in the long-term protection and assistance of individuals and communities suffering through and trying to recover from armed conflict. It addresses the question of how to interpret ‘humanity’ and whether, perhaps, there is a case to argue that it can and should be interpreted more broadly, given the influx of human focused concepts to emerge since the end of the Second World War. This thesis focuses on sovereignty as responsibility, human security and Responsibility to Protect (RtoP) as key examples of such, as they all relate to humanitarianism. Their specific links are considered in detail in chapter five.udTeitel published ‘Humanity’s Law’ in 2011 which reflects on issues similar to those contained in this thesis. However, much of Teitel’s analysis remains grounded in ‘black-letter’ law, whereas this thesis is taking a socio-legal approach and focuses on the law and practice of the ICRC. Humanity’s Law, as a concept, is very close to this Author’s interpretation and understanding of international law and the international legal order, and, as such, it is imperative to refer, throughout the thesis, to ideas put forward in ‘Humanity’s Law’. In terms of existing literature and academic argument on the matter of ‘humanity’, Teitel provides a comprehensive analysis of case law and theory. In addition much literature on the ICRC dedicates a passing comment to the Principles of the IRCRCM, which include ‘humanity’.ududSovereignty as responsibility, human security and RtoP are reflective of a shift away from a state-centric model of the international legal order. There is increasing awareness and political will in terms of the plight of vulnerable populations in need. The key for this thesis is whether the ICRC mandate and practice are reflective of the developing notions of humanity, that is, is the ICRC ‘buying in’ to security or interventionist interpretations of humanity? Or, which would be a much more daring conclusion to draw, is the ICRC actually ‘feeding’ the development of ‘humanity’ as a concept which is, in turn, permeating international legal discourse more broadly?ududThe traditional theory of human security, as proposed by the United Nations Development Programme in 1994, considered economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political security to be of consequence to the people living in conflict and other insecure environments. These types of security were seldom prioritised in traditional security paradigms, which focused on national security. This thesis considers human security to be of continuing importance to people on the ground during and after armed conflict and other situations of violence. For people trying to rebuild their lives, family life, food, health and community security are as important, if not more important, than the maintenance of territorial borders. In this regard, it considers the work of the Economic Security (EcoSec) Unit, which assesses needs at household level in order to obtain first-hand local information.ududThis thesis required the undertaking of interviews with ICRC delegates at the headquarters in Geneva. The literature in this area is somewhat limited and that which is produced comes predominantly from the ICRC. It was necessary therefore to undertake empirical research to provide an original contribution to research in this field and to comprehensively address the research questions of this thesis. Finally, this thesis uses a case study of the ongoing conflict in the DRC to examine the activities of the ICRC and shows how, and to what extent, the changes within the ICRC practice are impacting people on the ground. The case study was also informed by the interviews.
機(jī)譯：亨利·杜南（Henry Dunant）在索費(fèi)里諾戰(zhàn)役之后的經(jīng)歷，距紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)（ICRC）成立已有150年。第一次世界大戰(zhàn)已經(jīng)過(guò)去了100年：如果我們想到一個(gè)“傳統(tǒng)”戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)，會(huì)想到什么圖像？也許有人想象著穿著制服，坦克，槍支和戰(zhàn)es的士兵。在想象中的沖突情況下，國(guó)際紅十字與紅新月運(yùn)動(dòng)（IRCRCM）的標(biāo)志是否具有特征？現(xiàn)在想象一下今天發(fā)生在敘利亞，馬里，剛果民主共和國(guó)（DRC）和烏克蘭的沖突。在這些沖突中，士兵與城鎮(zhèn)平民，裝甲車輛和敞篷卡車混在一起，在沖突地區(qū)和武器之間運(yùn)送身穿制服的士兵，武器包括簡(jiǎn)易爆炸裝置，自殺炸彈和性暴力。盡管如此，IRCRCM的標(biāo)志繼續(xù)印有醫(yī)務(wù)人員的制服及其設(shè)備，車輛和救援箱。 ud ud武裝沖突性質(zhì)的變化對(duì)紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)造成了什么后果？沖突和紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的存在對(duì)人類造成的影響已經(jīng)持續(xù)了150年，但是人們的需求和暴力類型不斷變化。的確，自1863年紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)成立以來(lái)，沖突中的方法，手段和參與者已經(jīng)改變，但紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的做法也發(fā)生了變化。本文考慮了這種發(fā)展的合法性。紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)也許是最重要的，自稱國(guó)際人道主義法（IHL）的“監(jiān)護(hù)人”，并且是中立和獨(dú)立的實(shí)體。 ud ud本文考慮了紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)目前以“人道主義主義”的名義開(kāi)展的活動(dòng)。 。它探討了對(duì)1949年日內(nèi)瓦第一，第二，第三和第四公約，第一和第二附加議定書以及《紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)規(guī)約》的嚴(yán)格解釋是否會(huì)表明它作為一個(gè)組織，正在篡奪其任務(wù)和原則。本文還研究了紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)是否是具有國(guó)際法人格的組織，如果是這樣的話，是否將其作用合法地?cái)U(kuò)展到該組織之外的問(wèn)題。 1949年《日內(nèi)瓦第一，第二，第三和第四公約》，《第一和第二附加議定書》以及《國(guó)際CRCRM章程》。因此，本文從更廣泛的角度考察了紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)與國(guó)際法之間的關(guān)系，包括國(guó)際人道法，國(guó)際法和國(guó)際人權(quán)法（IHRL）。本論文做出的獨(dú)特貢獻(xiàn)是對(duì)人類的意義和實(shí)現(xiàn)進(jìn)行了實(shí)質(zhì)性分析，這是IRCRCM的一項(xiàng)原則。 ud udIRCRCM對(duì)人類原則的定義是： ud國(guó)際紅十字與紅新月會(huì)運(yùn)動(dòng)源于向戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)上的傷員提供無(wú)歧視援助的愿望，它以國(guó)際和國(guó)家能力努力防止和減輕可能遭受的痛苦。其目的是保護(hù)人類生命和健康，并確保對(duì)人類的尊重。它促進(jìn)了所有人之間的相互了解，友誼，合作和持久和平。 ud ud第五章表明，二十世紀(jì)下半葉出現(xiàn)的新概念，特別是主權(quán)作為責(zé)任，人類安全和保護(hù)責(zé)任（RtoP），表明了國(guó)際社會(huì)的發(fā)展。與整個(gè)國(guó)際社會(huì)有關(guān)的主權(quán)國(guó)家內(nèi)部的個(gè)人困境。特別是，生活在國(guó)家內(nèi)部的人們的“人道”和人道主義需求，特別是在沖突期間和沖突后，已成為國(guó)際討論的一部分。人道主義援助不再僅限于向士兵提供援助。 ud ud內(nèi)部武裝沖突中的非人道思想在國(guó)際舞臺(tái)上也受到關(guān)注。從利比亞，敘利亞和烏克蘭等最近的沖突中可以明顯看出，國(guó)際對(duì)這種局勢(shì)的反應(yīng)的意愿和能力差異很大。因此，本論文考慮了紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)是否能夠以聯(lián)合國(guó)等其他更加政治化的行為者無(wú)法與當(dāng)?shù)厝私佑|。它考慮在武裝沖突期間和之后是否有理由采取人道主義方法進(jìn)行保護(hù)？紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)是否有能力以有希望和有效的方式接觸個(gè)人和社區(qū)？紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)是否必須調(diào)整其人道主義援助和保護(hù)作用，以充分應(yīng)對(duì)武裝沖突不斷變化的性質(zhì)？這些問(wèn)題貫穿于整個(gè)論文中對(duì)紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)任務(wù)授權(quán)及其當(dāng)前工作的分析。 ud ud關(guān)鍵地，本論文專門用一章來(lái)分析“人道”在當(dāng)今的含義。在許多文獻(xiàn)中，人類是根據(jù)國(guó)際人道法來(lái)考慮的，據(jù)認(rèn)為，國(guó)際人道法對(duì)此提供了有限的定義。同樣地，許多關(guān)于紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)中心與國(guó)際人道法的聯(lián)系的文獻(xiàn)。紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)經(jīng)常構(gòu)成關(guān)于國(guó)際人道法的一章的小節(jié)，或者從國(guó)際人道法的角度來(lái)看。該論文比紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的傳統(tǒng)說(shuō)法更進(jìn)取，因?yàn)樗辜t十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)成為在遭受武裝沖突并試圖從武裝沖突中恢復(fù)的個(gè)人和社區(qū)的長(zhǎng)期保護(hù)和援助的關(guān)鍵角色?？紤]到自第二次世界大戰(zhàn)以來(lái)涌現(xiàn)的以人為中心的概念涌入，它解決了如何解釋“人性”的問(wèn)題，也許是否有理由爭(zhēng)論它可以而且應(yīng)該被更廣泛地解釋。本論文著眼于主權(quán)作為責(zé)任，人類安全和保護(hù)責(zé)任（RtoP）等重要例子，因?yàn)樗鼈兌寂c人道主義有關(guān)。第五章詳細(xì)討論了它們的具體鏈接。 udTeitel于2011年發(fā)布了《人道法》，該書反映了與本文所涉及的問(wèn)題類似的問(wèn)題。但是，泰特爾的大部分分析仍以“黑字法”為基礎(chǔ)，而本論文采取的是社會(huì)法律方法，重點(diǎn)是紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的法律和實(shí)踐。人道法作為一個(gè)概念非常接近作者對(duì)國(guó)際法和國(guó)際法律秩序的解釋和理解，因此，有必要在整篇論文中提及“人道法”中提出的思想。根據(jù)有關(guān)“人性”問(wèn)題的現(xiàn)有文獻(xiàn)和學(xué)術(shù)論據(jù)，泰特爾提供了判例法和理論的全面分析。此外，許多有關(guān)紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的文獻(xiàn)都對(duì)IRCRCM原則進(jìn)行了評(píng)論，其中包括“人道”。 ud ud作為責(zé)任，人身安全和RtoP的主權(quán)反映了從以國(guó)家為中心的國(guó)際模式的轉(zhuǎn)變法律命令。關(guān)于需要幫助的脆弱人群的困境，人們的意識(shí)和政治意愿不斷提高。本論文的重點(diǎn)是，紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的任務(wù)授權(quán)和實(shí)踐是否反映了人類發(fā)展的觀念，即紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)是“接受”安全性還是干預(yù)主義對(duì)人類的解釋？或者，這將是一個(gè)更大膽的結(jié)論，是紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)實(shí)際上是在“促進(jìn)”“人道”的發(fā)展嗎？這一概念反過(guò)來(lái)又更廣泛地滲透到國(guó)際法律話語(yǔ)中？ ud ud傳統(tǒng)的人道理論根據(jù)聯(lián)合國(guó)開(kāi)發(fā)計(jì)劃署在1994年提出的安全，認(rèn)為經(jīng)濟(jì)，糧食，健康，環(huán)境，人身，社區(qū)和政治安全對(duì)生活在沖突和其他不安全環(huán)境中的人們至關(guān)重要。在傳統(tǒng)的安全范例中，很少將這些類型的安全放在優(yōu)先位置，后者以國(guó)家安全為重點(diǎn)。本論文認(rèn)為，在武裝沖突和其他暴力局勢(shì)期間和之后，人身安全對(duì)實(shí)地人民具有持續(xù)重要的意義。對(duì)于試圖重建生活的人們來(lái)說(shuō)，家庭生活，食物，健康和社區(qū)安全與維持領(lǐng)土邊界同樣重要，甚至更為重要。在這方面，委員會(huì)考慮了經(jīng)濟(jì)安全（EcoSec）部門的工作，該部門評(píng)估家庭需求以獲取第一手的當(dāng)?shù)匦畔ⅰ?ud ud日內(nèi)瓦。該領(lǐng)域的文獻(xiàn)有限，所產(chǎn)生的文獻(xiàn)主要來(lái)自紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)。因此，有必要進(jìn)行實(shí)證研究，為該領(lǐng)域的研究做出原創(chuàng)性的貢獻(xiàn)，并全面解決本文的研究問(wèn)題。最后，本文以對(duì)剛果民主共和國(guó)持續(xù)沖突的案例研究為例，研究了紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)的活動(dòng)，并展示了紅十字國(guó)際委員會(huì)實(shí)踐中的變化如何以及在多大程度上影響了當(dāng)?shù)厝?。訪談還提供了案例研究。

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